In contrast to the familiar blue-hued forms of Krishna that populated the majority of Assamese neo-Vaishnavite illustrated manuscripts in the eighteenth century, the Ananda Lahari, with its visual focus on the divine feminine, presents a compelling deviation. Neo-Vaishnavism, introduced in Assam during the fifteenth century by Shankaradeva, primarily focuses on the Bhagavata Purana, especially its 10th canto. The religious text recognises Krishna or Vishnu as the Supreme Deity. Even Radha, the chief female consort of Krishna, does not find prominence in the Assamese Neo-Vaishnavite theology. Instead, the illustrated manuscripts from this school were attempts to personify Krishna as an accessible incarnation of Vishnu — a form of the Divine with whom the devotee could develop a close, emotional connection.
But the Ananda Lahari, belonging to the same school of painting, aimed to do the same by visualising Shakti. Consisting of 63 illustrated folios, the manuscript was written by Ananta Acharya. Nothing is known of the author except that he was one of the many scholars in the court of the Ahom king Shiva Singha (r. 1714–1744). The manuscript was produced under the patronage of the king Shiva Singha’s wife, queen Phuleshwari (r. 1722–1731), an ardent patron of the arts, of literature and a staunch Shakta herself.
On the whole, the eighteenth century was a period that witnessed Ahom patronage of manuscript art on a grand scale. During this period, Phuleshwari’s power and influence on Ahom statecraft, especially in matters of religion, was also exceptional. She was given the title of “Bar-Raja” and “Pramatheshwari” (another name of the goddess Durga) by her monarch-husband. It was amidst these artistic and political developments that queen Phuleshwari commissioned the goddess-centric Ananda Lahari. Although the manuscript chiefly focuses on the glories of the Goddess, a few folios are dedicated to the praises of the beauty and qualities of Phuleshwari herself. The queen, who was originally a temple dancer, was repeatedly described as haughty and arrogant by the scribes who composed the Ahom buranjis (the royal chronicles of the Ahom dynasty). Therefore, the Ananda Lahari can be seen as one of the instruments used by Phuleshwari to elevate and solidify the positions of both the Goddess and herself in the eyes of her subjects and court scribes.
The manuscript, after a summary salutation to Krishna, begins by paying salutations to Shakti. The text explicitly says that there is no difference between Shiva and Shakti and presents them in the Ardhanarishvara form. It also makes glaringly clear the fate that awaits a person in hell if they do not show due deference to the Shiva-Shakti form. Instead, the manuscript advises that knowledge about the supremacy of Shiva or Shakti is equal to knowing the four Vedas and that is enough to navigate the tides of life. Acharya succinctly states the intention of the manuscript by saying that he wishes to demystify Shakti, who is also called Bhavani or Gauri throughout the manuscript, and gives a full account of the deity in the manuscript.
Accordingly, the manuscript describes and glorifies the qualities of the Goddess in vivid detail. It states that the body of the moon-faced Goddess is so vast it covers the 14 realms of existence. Her eyes are lotus-shaped and Her feet are like the wish-fulfilling tree. It describes Her radiance outshining countless blazing suns. The manuscript also claims that in the home of Pashupati, She resides like Prakriti, supporting the universe’s existence.
The manuscript calls Bhavani “the Supreme Goddess of the world” — Her supremacy exceeding even that of Brahma, Vishnu, and the other gods, who are shown prostrating before Her, seeking Her blessings and help against the daityas. The manuscript says that Brahma, with his four mouths, is not able to finish singing Her glories. In one folio, Brahma even offers his crown to the standing Bhavani. Sometimes, She is shown embracing, nursing or otherwise accompanied by Her sons, Kartika and Ganesha. A few folios also feature the dark-skinned ganas alongside the Goddess. However, Her constant companion is Shiva, the one with long matted hair and milky white complexion.
Hara and Gauri are often shown relaxing in their abode. Their divine union, which results in the manifestation of the universe, is represented in a few folios. Bhavani or Gauri regularly features on Her own, but Hara or Shiva is always accompanied by His consort. The manuscript makes it amply clear that Shiva cannot be praised without or differentiated from Shakti.
The paintings embody the core characteristics of the neo-Vaishnavite school — saturated shades of primary colours abound, with a red background against which human beings are featured, topped by a blue-green background. The placement of the figures are on an horizontal plane and under multifoil arches that separate the red background from the upper, blue-green one.
There is also an absence of modelling and perspective. The figurative art depicts broad chests with tapering waists, angular limbs, wide fish-shaped eyes arched by elongated eyebrows. Architectural forms are simple, with the cross section views of houses complemented by decorative parasols, simplified landscapes, and textual captions to the figures.
In terms of perspective, the painted areas are not broken up into foreground, background and horizon. Individualisation of figures through physiognomy is also not attempted. Natural proportions are adhered to in the case of human figures, except in certain cases when the deity’s form is enlarged to emphasise their divinity. Predetermined formulas are used to highlight the mood captured in each painting in an attempt to make them appear dynamic and impassioned, instead of trying to pass them off as portraits made from observed reality. Through a combination of gestures and postures, the figures convey their respective messages or conversations. Bordered with straight angular lines and neatly separated from the images, the text is written in straight lines, both in Brajawali and in the Kaitheli script used by the Kayastha scribes.
The manuscript equates the queen with the goddess when, in a few folios, Phuleshwari (“Bar-Raja”) and Bhavani (“Swarag Raja”), are depicted seated on the same simhasana engaging in a discourse, much like two companions. The two figures are equal in stature and were it not for the text accompanying the illustration, they could be mistaken for two confidantes having a friendly conversation. They are also described as two sovereign rulers — one of the heavens and the other of the terrestrial realms.
The Ananda Lahari can, therefore, be called a direct outcome of the queen’s efforts to elevate the Shakta religion to the status of a state religion. The work strategically employs the same neo-Vaishnavite visual idiom and Brajawali language — replicating the stylistic and linguistic choices that were successfully used to popularise the figure and cult of Krishna. Ultimately, the manuscript can be said to have played a significant role in legitimising Phuleshwari’s reign.
Deeplakshmi Saikia is an Assistant Curator of Indian classical art at Kiran Nadar Museum of Art. Her PhD thesis, recently submitted in the School of Arts and Aesthetics at Jawaharlal Nehru University, focuses on the tradition of neo-Vaishnavite manuscripts in Assam.
