A single flicker of light can turn lifeless cutouts into living shadows — that is the magic of shadow puppetry, a powerful medium of storytelling across Asia for centuries. In Indonesia, Wayang Kulit captivates audiences with its stylised figures, crafted from leather and animated against a glowing screen, accompanied by the rhythmic beat of the gamelan (traditional Indonesian orchestra). Closer to home, in Andhra Pradesh, Tholu Bommalata, the shadow theatre tradition, takes another form — with brightly painted puppets, moving to the beats of Indian folk instruments, accompanied by direct narration.

Although separated by geography, these traditions share striking similarities. Both draw upon the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata for their themes, yet their artistic expression differs in form, sound, and intent. The stylised silhouettes of Wayang Kulit embody Javanese cosmology and philosophy, while the bold figures of Andhra puppetry speak more to devotional, religious, and festive themes. Wayang Kulit flourished as a courtly art form but was also enjoyed by commoners as part of folk festivities and significant events, such as births and weddings. Tholu Bommalata, on the other hand, originated as a rural, folk form and has historically been performed for community audiences in villages.

The two traditions can be viewed side by side to reveal their shared roots in epic storytelling that continues to hold meaning for diverse audiences. A comparative study also reveals the cultural settings that shaped their distinct aesthetics and performance styles. Together, they show how cultural forms and stories travel, adapt, and endure across regions. Understanding these parallels begins with their origins, in the movement of epics and performance traditions across South and Southeast Asia.

Origins and Cultural Transmission

Shadow puppetry in South and Southeast Asia developed through the circulation of stories and performance traditions across centuries. At the centre of this exchange were the Ramayana and Mahabharata, two epics that originated in the Indian subcontinent, but travelled widely through trade, religious movements, and royal patronage. Textual evidence, temple inscriptions, and oral traditions, across Asia, show that these narratives were not transmitted as fixed scripts, but rather as flexible cultural material. Scholars have highlighted that the ancient trade between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia was a major point of transfer of these stories. Each region, however, produced its own retellings of the epics, combining familiar storylines with local idioms and artistic vocabularies.

In Andhra Pradesh, Tholu Bommalata or the “dance of leather puppets,” is recorded in historical and ethnographic accounts as an established tradition of several centuries. Literary and archaeological references suggest that shadow puppetry was already in practice under the Satvahana dynasty, between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. 

Historically, Tholu Bommalata was performed in village squares and temple courtyards, especially during festivals linked to the characters from the two epics. Some plays drew directly from the Ranganatha Ramayanamu, a Telugu version of the epic composed around the 14th century, while others adapted stories more freely for local audiences. Various studies have documented the persistence of this tradition within community and religious life, even though, in recent times, its popularity has fluctuated with changing forms of entertainment. In Java, Wayang Kulit has a documented presence from at least the 10th Century, with stone reliefs at sites like Candi Jago and court records from the Majapahit kingdom, indicating its importance in royal and ritual contexts. The dalang, or puppet master, is both the narrator and spiritual guide in Wayang Kulit performances, supported by the cyclical sound of the gamelan music. 

Art historians note that shadow puppetry from Andhra may have travelled through maritime routes to Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Thailand, where local courts and religious networks adapted it to their own settings.  The movement of stories and performance practices across the Indian Ocean explains how two regions, separated by distance, came to share similar epic storytelling traditions, even as they developed very distinct theatrical vocabularies.

Puppets, Performance, and Storytelling

The physical form of the puppet is the most immediate difference between Wayang Kulit and Tholu Bommalata. In Java, figures are cut from buffalo hide, their surfaces carved with delicate perforations that catch and scatter light on the screen. Puppets can vary in size from 12 inches to 30 inches, depending on the character depicted. They are jointed but use a single central rod that allows only limited arm motion. The silhouettes are elongated and abstracted, with angular noses, arched eyebrows, and intricate costume details etched into the leather. 

In contrast, Tholu Bommalata puppets are much larger, between 3 to 4 feet in height, brightly painted, and with multiple joints. The Andhra puppets also use multiple rods, allowing their arms and legs to move independently, aiding in depicting fuller, more fluid movements and expressive gestures. Puppet masters use layered, translucent leather pieces from treated goat or deer hide to craft the puppets before painting them in bright hues, like red, green, yellow, and blue. A depiction of Ravana might show his ten heads stacked vividly, next to each other, each painted with expressive eyes and bold moustaches, filling the screen with a sense of power. 

The visual choices of the two puppetry traditions are not incidental; they connect to different cultural sensibilities that are specific to their regions. Upon comparison, we encounter more stylised, delicate and abstracted forms in Java that starkly contrast with the bold representations and spectacle of the Andhra tradition that draws on Indian folk art styles.

Performance settings reinforce these contrasts. A Javanese screen is lit from behind with an oil lamp or electric bulb, casting sharply defined shadows, while the audience listens to gamelan music  — a layered ensemble of metallophones, drums, and gongs that builds the atmosphere through a slow, hypnotic rhythm. The dalang sits cross-legged before the screen, surrounded by rows of puppets and musicians, in a performance that is as much a ritualised act as it is theatre.

In Andhra, the stage is often the village square, the white screen held up by bamboo poles, and there are only a few musicians accompanying the performance playing simple instruments like the harmonium, cymbal, and a drum. The troupe stands behind the screen with the puppeteer narrating the story loudly — most use a microphone nowadays — and this reflects the communal and conversational nature of the art form.

The choice of stories reflect local priorities. In Java, the epics are not retold literally but filtered through Javanese philosophy. Characters are often divided into refined and coarse types, with Arjuna or Rama embodying serenity and model behaviour, while clown figures, such as Semar or Petruk, provide comic interludes that are laced with wisdom. 

In Andhra, performances tend to focus on episodes of devotion and moral conflict, with long sequences of battle or romance, delivered through an energetic narration of the story accompanying the puppet’s movements. Each puppet also embodies certain core characteristics. For instance, Hanuman, painted with wide, eager eyes with his tail raised, conveys devotion and dynamism — qualities that resonate strongly with village audiences.

Improvisation is a key part of both traditions, but with different emphases. The Javanese dalang, controlling dozens of puppets alone, weaves extended narratives enriched with local references, along with moral and spiritual commentary. He selects and animates characters at will from the row of shadow puppets beside him, exuding a magical aura as he brings stories to life. In Andhra Pradesh, the narration is more collaborative, with several performers providing different character voices, interspersing songs and adding topical or devotional lessons to hold the audience’s attention. The bright colours also keep the audience’s attention riveted to the main characters and their stories. For instance, a brightly painted Rama puppet, glowing red under the light, will radiate immediacy and drama. 

The contrasting practices highlight how the visual vocabulary of each tradition mirrors its function. While Wayang Kulit is about cultivating a meditative atmosphere of shadows and music that leaves the audience reflecting on the cosmic order and moral dilemmas that beset human characters, Tholu Bommalata, with its bold style, catchy music and direct narration, thrives on spectacle. The puppets represent figures from mythology closely tied to religious beliefs and celebrations — they are not mere characters in a story for the festival crowd who gather before the glowing screen.

Shifts, Decline, and Revival

Both traditions faced major challenges by the 20th century. Colonial interventions disrupted the traditional patronage system in both regions. While Dutch administrators in Java saw Wayang Kulit as a form of cultural heritage, they also used it as a vehicle for political messaging. In India, British policies weakened sponsorship from royal and temple coffers that had long sustained the puppeteers. With the spread of cinema, radio, and television, live shadow theatre struggled to compete for audiences. By the late twentieth century, many hereditary puppeteers in Andhra had abandoned the craft due to the lack of income sources.

Revival efforts have taken vivid forms. In Indonesia, post-independence, the state elevated Wayang Kulit as a significant art form that was representative of the nation’s culture. UNESCO’s recognition of the Javanese puppet tradition in 2003, as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, further reinforced its global profile. Performances are now often staged for tourists, in schools, and at state functions alongside ritual contexts. 

In Andhra, folk festivals, cultural NGOs, and state academies have worked to preserve Tholu Bommalata. Documentation projects led by government and non-profit institutions have created archival material as well as alternate platforms to preserve the folk form. Experiments with new media have also emerged, where the puppeteer adapts epics for short films and television spots to engage younger audiences and preserve the cultural tradition.

The comparison of Wayang Kulit and Tholu Bommalata highlights how traditions rooted in the same epics evolved into distinct cultural expressions that were shaped by the cultural environment, societal modalities, aesthetics, and performance practices. Both forms have weathered historical shifts, from colonial disruption to competition with mass media, and both have found renewed life through state recognition, tourism and cultural preservation efforts. What endures across these differences is the capacity of shadow puppetry to keep epic stories alive, not as static relics but as living practices that adapt to their audiences.

Khushi Kesari is an Assistant Professor at SGT University and the Program Officer at the History Lab, Advanced Study Institute of Asia (ASIA), SGT University. Her work focuses on history, heritage, and material culture, with particular interests in traditional knowledge and Geographical Indications (GIs).